A large multinational survey published in Journal of Cybersecurity (Open Access) has found that image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) is far more widespread than previously documented. The study, involving 16,693 adults across 10 countries, examined five forms of perpetration: taking intimate images without consent, digitally creating intimate images, stealing images from devices or accounts, sharing images without consent, and threatening to distribute them. It also explored motivations, demographic patterns, the relationships involved, and community attitudes toward consequences.
The term IBSA refers to the nonconsensual creation, distribution, or use of intimate images, including digitally altered content. These acts can occur within intimate relationships, in social settings, or anonymously online. As digital communication expands and image-sharing becomes routine, researchers have increasingly warned that the potential for misuse is growing as well. Yet most academic work has historically focused on victims rather than perpetrators. This study helps fill that gap by mapping behaviors across countries with varying cultural norms, legislation, and levels of technological access.
Across all countries, 11.6% of respondents reported engaging in at least one type of IBSA behavior since age 18. Another 2.3% declined to answer, suggesting the true rate may be higher. Nonconsensual sharing or showing of intimate images was the most common subtype. Motivations varied widely and were not limited to revenge. Many perpetrators cited reasons such as attempting to be funny, impressing peers, showing off, or seeking attention. These findings challenge the narrow framing of IBSA as "revenge porn," showing that many instances occur within broader social interactions rather than through deliberate harm-seeking alone.
Men were significantly more likely than women to report perpetration in most countries, although women reported similar or higher rates of some behaviors in specific contexts, such as South Korea. LGBTQ+ respondents, regardless of gender, were also more likely to report perpetrating IBSA than heterosexual respondents. Age played a major role: the highest rates were found among adults under 35, aligning with patterns of higher digital engagement and image-based communication. Another striking pattern was the strong correlation between experiencing IBSA as a victim and later perpetrating similar behaviors. Individuals who had been victims were more than eight times more likely to report having perpetrated IBSA, raising important questions about normalization, retaliation, and cycles of harm.
The study also examined the relationships between perpetrators and those depicted in the images. Contrary to assumptions that offenders are usually strangers, respondents most often targeted current or former romantic partners, followed by friends, acquaintances, or people within their immediate social circles. This aligns with broader research on technology-facilitated abuse, showing that proximity, access, and preexisting trust can make individuals more vulnerable to nonconsensual image use.
The distribution methods used by perpetrators varied, with the most common involving direct messaging apps such as WhatsApp, Signal, Snapchat, or Telegram. Many also reported showing images in person by handing their device to someone else. Social media platforms such as Facebook, TikTok, and Instagram were cited as distribution channels, though less frequently. A smaller proportion reported posting images to adult websites or platforms designed for anonymous sharing. These patterns illustrate how everyday digital tools can serve as avenues for misuse, often in private or semi-private contexts that are difficult to regulate.
The survey also captured the experiences of bystanders. Nearly half of all respondents reported receiving or encountering intimate images of someone who likely had not consented to their distribution. These exposures included forwarded images among friends, unsolicited content in messaging apps, and images encountered on public platforms. The circulation of these images, even passively, contributes to normalization and reinforces the idea that such material is acceptable to share casually.
Community attitudes toward consequences revealed high levels of public disapproval. Almost all respondents agreed that some form of consequence should exist for those who share intimate images without consent. The most commonly endorsed response was requiring deletion or removal of the content. Many also supported warnings, account suspensions, or monetary compensation. Women were more likely than men to support harsher consequences, including criminal penalties. Perpetrators themselves were notably less punitive, though the majority still supported some form of accountability.
Researchers emphasize that these behaviors occur in a broad sociotechnical environment shaped by design choices and platform affordances. Features such as disappearing messages, screenshot capabilities, and large-scale cloud storage make it easier to capture, save, and distribute images with minimal friction. Additionally, conventional cybersecurity practices often fail in intimate relationships, where individuals commonly share devices, passwords, or account access. As a result, legal frameworks and technical protections may not adequately address the specific vulnerabilities created by interpersonal relationships.
From the viewpoint of Seven Reflections' Dimensional Systems Architecture (DSA), this study illustrates how harmful behaviors emerge not only from individual intent but from structural affordances within a system. In DSA terms, IBSA can be seen as a breakdown in boundary governance within a shared cognitive - digital field. Platforms create open channels that allow information to move freely, but without sufficient structural constraints, these channels enable misuse as easily as communication. The widespread bystander exposure revealed in the survey suggests that once harmful content enters the system, it spreads through multiple pathways, revealing high "field permeability." Addressing IBSA therefore requires strengthening boundaries - through platform design, clearer norms, and educational interventions - rather than relying solely on punitive measures after the fact.
Taken together, the findings show that IBSA is not rare, isolated, or confined to extreme cases. It is embedded in everyday digital interactions, influenced by social rewards, shaped by platform features, and often perpetuated within trusted relationships. As digital communication continues to evolve, the study highlights an urgent need for education, policy development, safety-by-design technologies, and cross-cultural approaches that reflect the complex realities of how intimate images are created, shared, and misused in modern life.
